A Journey Through the Old Testament - 2680 Words

Old Testament Survey - OTS101 Nate Jackson Student # N1838-2219 June 12, 2011 Summary The first 39 books of the larger work called the Bible, is called the Old Testament. The Bible itself is arguably the best selling and most read book of all time, yet it’s well known to be quite challenging to read through and understand. The Old Testament portion of the Bible, notably the most difficult portion of the Bible for most to study and follow, yields 39 books from multiple authors, and spans over 4000 years of crucial world and church history. If that were not enough to take on, the Old Testament comes our way through multiple styles of authorship and formats, including but not limited to, books of history, law, proverbs, ethics,†¦show more content†¦This state of creation brought God to the decision to â€Å"reboot† His creation all together, by way of the flood. In the text, Dr. Towns makes it clear that while the flood demonstrated the judgment of God against the sin and rebellion of man, a look at the life and decisions of Noah reveal that Go d’s gracious hand of salvation and deliverance – even when the rest of the world is bent on doing evil - is ever present and extended to all who will choose to love, trust, and follow Him. After the flood, Dr. Towns takes us into and through the life, call, and choices of impact for Abraham, Sarah, their maid Hagar and Abraham’s first born child Ishmael. We again see the consequences of faithless choices and distrust of God, and the costs that surely follow them. We are introduced to Isaac, Abraham’s miracle and the son God promised, his wife Rebekah, Abraham’s nephew Lot, and Abraham’s grandson Jacob (later called Israel), and Jacob’s very special son Joseph. We see a continual theme through their lives that God desired to have and maintain a close and personal relationship with His people, and so long as they worshipped God alone and looked to Him alone for their substance, they walked in His provision and blessings. But every time they looked to idols or others for their direction, protection, and hope, they would find themselves in turmoil, loss, and hardship. Dr. TownsShow MoreRelatedA Journey Through the Old Testament2696 Words   |  11 PagesOld Testament Survey - OTS101 Nate Jackson Student # N1838-2219 June 12, 2011 Summary The first 39 books of the larger work called the Bible, is called the Old Testament. The Bible itself is arguably the best selling and most read book of all time, yet it’s well known to be quite challenging to read through and understand. The Old Testament portion of the Bible, notably the most difficult portion of the Bible for most to study and follow, yields 39 books from multiple authors, and spans overRead MoreA Review Of Journey Through The Old Testament2098 Words   |  9 PagesA Review of Journey Through the Old Testament The story of this book takes place at a time in biblical history, approximately 4000 B.C. to 400 B.C. in an area we would commonly refer to as the Middle East. In the beginning of this book we are told about God creating all that is. The primary focus of the first chapter, is created beings called angels. In the course of time one of these angels, consider to be what is referred to as an arc angel, decides that he is greater than the Creator. AlthoughRead MoreBook Review: Journey Through the Old Testament1538 Words   |  6 PagesPeaceful Journey Journey Through the Old Testament is a text book intended for high school students. It largely details various circumstances and facets of the Old Testament in the Bible, and contains a number of key passages and scriptures. In many respects, this textbook has been designed to serve as a companion for the Bible specifically for adolescent readers who may need some sort of help or guidance understanding the text of the good book. In fact, this aspect of Journey Through the Old TestamentRead MoreEmergence Of Christianity : Christianity1598 Words   |  7 Pagesportrayed throughout the Bible, however, it is depicted differently in the Old and New Testament. The definition of faith and how it was shown changes from the Old to New Testament; the Old Testament has an explicit and precise definition, while the New Testament has a more open and honest way of looking at things. What did faith mean to the Jews? As time has evolved so have people’s definition of faith. According to the Old Testament, there is no clear definition of faith, the closest word used comes fromRead MoreLife Lessons Along A Christian s Journey1006 Words   |  5 PagesLessons along a Christian’s Journey The Bible has stories and lessons that communicates to each of us in different areas of life. The Bible is the guide to everyone’s salvation. Understanding God’s voice is understanding the existence of all the living. It is up to each person to choose a godhead life or not. The responsibility in a godhead life does not come easy. The understanding, connecting and unity in a godhead life comes with many tests and trials along the journey, but faith is all it takesRead MoreThe Odyssey By Homer And The Old Testaments1070 Words   |  5 PagesThe Odyssey by Homer and the Old Testaments: King James Version are two of the most read and most sophisticated pieces of literature that have transcended through generations. While they share similar qualities; both greatly differ as well, especially when it comes to the women characters. Classical historian and professor of classical studies at Wellesley College, Mary Lefkowitz, makes a significant contrast between these two famous writings. She believes that a major difference between the womenRead MoreThe Church As The Good News Of Salvation Essay1704 Words   |  7 PagesPersecution was a continuous problem for the early church as the good news of salvation through Jesus Christ began to spread. One of the most zealous persecutors of the early church determined to stop the proliferation of this message was a Pharisee named Saul of Tarsus. Therefore, to demonstrate that salvation and redemption are for everyone, Jesus called Saul to help spread the Gospel. This calling was so important that Luke described it three times in Acts. First, in Acts 9:1-30, then again asRead MoreThe Old Testament Of God868 Words   |  4 PagesIntroduction The Old Testament is set from the creation of the universe (roughly 4000 BC,) to the period of the Persian Empire and Cyrus who allowed the Jews to return from captivity and rebuild their temple, ending around 400 BC. It tells the story of God s chosen people, the Hebrews, who were later known as Israelites or Jews. The Old Testament presents their testimony and interaction with God during this time. Body In the beginning of time, God created the heavens and the earth and everythingRead MoreSimmary of the books of the Old Testament808 Words   |  4 Pages Summary of the books of the Old Testament Genesis (EXAMPLE) The book of Genesis is largely narrative material. Some key themes and events include God as the creator and sustainer of his creation demonstrated through the accounts of the creation week, the fall of man, the flood, and Patriarchal History, including Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and Joseph. After Adam and Eve sinned and ushered the era of sin and death into the world, men continued to become increasingly sinful. EventuallyRead MoreWorship Is Our Response By The Things We Live1329 Words   |  6 Pagespersonal and corporate, to God – for who He is! And what He has done! Expressed in and by the things we say and the way we live.† There are many definitions of worship out there. I have found that this one seems to best fit my heart when praying through the topic of worship. Worship is something that begins in the heart, privately, and then flows out during times of public and corporate gathering. Worship however, is something far deeper than music, dance, art, or drama. Wo rship is more than fine

The Jungle by Upton Sinclair - 730 Words

The nineteen twenties in American history was as important maybe if not the most important era of American past time. Reasons for this are because at the turn of the century and into the twenties there were many things being discovered, new inventions, and new laws to being constructed for a developing nation. Along with this many Americans were moving to more urban areas in search of not only jobs but a better way of life due to the industrial factories. The invention of not only the automobile but the first moving assembly line created a huge market for the developing American economy. This created more jobs and it was evident with the age of imperialism that the United States was on the way to being a world power. However during the early 1900’s the part of history that seems to be overlooked is that of the food and meat packing industry. In an eye opening novel entitled The Jungle by Upton Sinclair, the author tells a story in which exposes the gut wrenching and shocking facts of what actually goes on in these food processing and meat packing factories in an urban Chicago during the early 1900s. Sinclair does a wonderful job at exposing what actually happened behind these factory doors and informs the reader of the unsanitary process in which animals were transformed into meat products. However when reading this novel one must take into consideration that Sinclair’s main concern was not only the disgusting products produced but the employees that produced them asShow MoreRelatedThe Jungle By Upton Sinclair1526 Words   |  7 Pagessocietal and government reforms did â€Å"The Jungle† call for. Do you feel this novel was effective in bringing about any of these reforms. â€Å"The Jungle†, written by Upton Sinclair, is an astonishing novel informing readers about the devastating truths involving impoverished life in America, particularly Chicago. This novel gives the reader an inside look into to the struggles of numerous European immigrants as they ventured to America during the early 1900 s. Sinclair depicts the disturbing and emotionalRead MoreThe Jungle By Upton Sinclair986 Words   |  4 PagesThe life of Jurgis Rudkus, from the novel The Jungle by Upton Sinclair, shares many parallels to the life of the working class in American society during the period 1865 to 1910. that limits the freedom of the working class. Even though it is stated on paper that working class citizens such as Jurgis are equals and just as free as the upper-class citizens, society limited the the freedom of the working class. People like Jurgis are not truly â€Å"free† because the social and political forces at the timeRead MoreThe Jungle By Upton Sinclair 1155 Words   |  5 Pages8/10/17 The Jungle By Upton Sinclair Book Review The working conditions in the US in the 20th  century were diffcult since workers had to struggle to survive on the daily bases.The Jungle written by Upton Sinclair does not only highlight the life of American workers but also uncovers the infleunce of capitalism in the US, where workers and employees were destined to fight for a living, while the upper-class reaped the benefits of national wealth.The Jungle gives many examples of theRead MoreThe Jungle by Upton Sinclair651 Words   |  3 Pages This book is called The Jungle. The Author or this book goes by the name of Upton Sinclair. The Jungle was published on February 26, 1906. Upton Sinclair is an American author with almost 100 books which are based on many different genres. Sinclair is a journalist, novelist, as well as a political activist. Sinclair is most famous for this book. The Jungle is a novel that is based on the disgusting conditions of the US meatpacking industry, and the hardships of the labor that immigrant me n and womenRead MoreThe Jungle by Upton Sinclair1400 Words   |  6 PagesWhat are the major issues Sinclair addresses in The Jungle? The Jungle by Upton Sinclair is a vivid account of life for the working class in the early 1900s. Jurgis Rudkus and his family travel to the United States in search of the American dream and an escape from the rigid social structure of Lithuania. Instead, they find a myriad of new difficulties. Sinclair attributes their problems to the downfalls of capitalism in the United States. While America’s system was idealistic for Jurgis and hisRead MoreThe Jungle By Upton Sinclair1210 Words   |  5 PagesThe Jungle by written by Upton Sinclair Book Report This report is based upon the book The Jungle, written by Upton Sinclair. This book was published by The Jungle Publishing Co. New York in 1906. Introduction of Author: Upton Sinclair was born on September 20, 1878, in Baltimore, Maryland. He belonged to a family off southern aristocracy but once Sinclair was born, his family went into poverty. Sinclair was a very smart boy and graduated from high school at the age of fourteen to go on and attendRead MoreThe Jungle by Upton Sinclair 792 Words   |  3 PagesCritics often argue that Upton Sinclair, author of many classic American novels including The Jungle, was cynical and bitter even. However if one were to dig just a bit deeper they may realize that Sinclair was spot on in his idea that this â€Å"American dream† that our country sells is actually a work of fiction. In his book The Jungle, Sinclair, points out the flaws of the American dream. Many immigrants traveled thousands of miles aboard, cramped, disease infested, ships with hope of coming to thisRead MoreThe Jungle By Upton Sinclair1260 Words   |  6 Pages The Jungle by Upton Sinclair was published in 1906. After reading two-hundred and ninety-four pages, it is evident that humans have been shaping the world over time and the world has been shaping us as well. A lot has changed since the industrial revolution, the time frame in which this novel takes place. Our food industries have improved, money value has risen, and job opportunities have expanded. Throughout The Jungle the reader follows an immigrant family on their journey of hardships andRead MoreThe Jungle By Upton Sinclair937 Words   |  4 PagesThe Jungle, by Upton Sinclair and Narrative of the life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, by Frederick Douglass both bring forth personal or fictional events that capture t he interest of the the reader. The use of pathos in their writing along with true events questions the ethics, morality, and human rights of each individual at the time setting for the publication. In the book, The Jungle, Upton Sinclair advocates for the overall elimination of oppression and exploitation of workers andRead MoreThe Jungle By Upton Sinclair1334 Words   |  6 Pages1900s there were already more than 10 million immigrants living in America. Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle reveals the struggles and hardships of a family that immigrated to the United States from Lithuania during the 1900s. Although many immigrant families came to America in search of a better life, soon most found themselves barely surviving with no job, food, shelter, or money. As is the case of the family in The Jungle. The novel not only unveils the corruption of the political and economic system

Back to the Future and Idioms Sabrina Ramos Free Essays

Clean up the air- To get rid of doubts or hard feelings. All right, let’s discuss this frankly. It’ll be better if we clear the air. We will write a custom essay sample on Back to the Future and Idioms Sabrina Ramos or any similar topic only for you Order Now 2. Keep at arm’s length- To keep at a distance; not to allow to come into close contact. 3. Have ones back on the wall- to have very serious problems which limit the ways in which you can act. With rising labor costs, industry has its back to the wall. 4. Bend over backwards- To betray someone. I wish you would not gossip about me. There is no need to stab me in the back. 5. Kill two birds with one stone- To solve two problems at one time with a single action. John was killing two birds with one stone while he learned the words to his part in the play while peeling potatoes. 6. Bite the hands that feed you- to treat someone badly who has helped you in some way. Leaving the company atter they’ve spent three years training you up – i biting the hand that feeds you. 7. Once in a blue mood- very rarely. My sister lives in Alaska, so I only get to see her once in a blue moon 8. Break the ice- To attempt to become friends with someone. He tried to break the ice, but she was a little cold. . Out on a limb- If you go out on a limb, you state an opinion or you do something which is very different to most other people. I dont think we’re going out on a limb in claiming that global warming is a problem that must be addressed. 10. My lips are sealed- I will tell no one this secret or this gossip. I promise I won’t tell anyone, my lips are sealed. 1 . Read between the lines- to infer something; to try to understand what is meant by something that is not written explicitly or openly. After listening to what she said, if you read between the lines, you can begin to see what she really means. 12. Have two left feet- to be very awkward with one’s feet. (Often refers to awkwardness at dancing. ) I’m sorry, I can’t dance better. I have two left feet. 13. With no strings attached- Unconditionally; with no obligations or conditions attached. My parents gave me use of their car without any strings attached. 14. A drop in the ocean- a very small amount in comparison to the amount that is needed. A hundred thousand may seem a lot but it’s a drop in the ocean compared to the millions that need to be spent. 15. Turn the tables- To change a situation so that someone’s position is the opposite of what it was She urned the tables by playing a better game and recently has won most of her matches. 16 Hold ones tongue- To refrain from speaking; to refrain from saying something unpleasant. I felt like scolding her, but I held my tongue 17. Steal (someone’s) thunder- To do something that takes attention away from what someone else has done I kept quiet about my pregnancy because Cathy was getting married, and I didn’t want to steal her thunder. 18. Know the ropes- knowledge of how to do something; how to work something I’ll be able to do my Job very well when I know the ropes. 19. Call the shots- To decide on the course of action; to be in charge. Sally always wants to call the shots, and Mary doesn’t like to be bossed around. 20. How to cite Back to the Future and Idioms Sabrina Ramos, Papers

Linux 2 Essay Example For Students

Linux 2 Essay Table of Contents LINUXI.IntroductionA. What is Linux1. Where did Linux came from2. When was Linux introduced3. Types of LinuxB. Benefits of Linux1. Performance2. Usability3. Features4. CostII.Getting StartedA.System RequirementsB.InstallationIII.Cool StuffA.X WindowsB.Networking C.System AdministrationIV.ConclusionWhat is LINUX?LINUX is a free, highly advanced, open-source operating system for PCs and Workstations. Technically, LINUX is an operating system kernel, the core part of an operating system. The LINUX kernel is commonly bundled with many other components to form a complete LINUX System or Distribution. When most people refer to LINUX, they are talking about this complete set of programs needed to run a computer, not just the kernel. Many people know of, or have at least heard of, UNIX. UNIX is both one of the oldest and one of the most powerful operating systems available today. How can UNIX be old and yet powerful by todays standards†, you ask. The answer to this qu estion lies in the history of UNIX; UNIX is a sort of subset of a much larger and more complex operating system called MULTICS. Both UNIX and MULTICS were developed decades ago for very large computers; only now, decades later are personal computers finally powerful enough to tackle these multitasking, multi-user systems with advanced features. Getting back to the crux of our first fact, LINUX looks like UNIX. LINUX is not officially UNIX simply because it was not written by the same programmers as was the original UNIX system. However, LINUX runs UNIX programs and shares the UNIX command set. LINUX is, for all general intents and purposes, a full-featured UNIX-type operating system. Where did LINUX come from?UNIX is one of the most popular operating systems worldwide because of its large support base and distribution. It was originally developed at AT;T as a multitasking system for minicomputers and mainframes in the 1970s, but has since grown to become one of the most widely used operating systems anywhere, despite its sometimes confusing interface and lack of central standardization. Many hackers feel that UNIX is the â€Å"right thing† the â€Å"one true operating system†. Hence, the development of LINUX by an expanding group of UNIX hackers who want to get their hands â€Å"dirty† with their own system. Versions of UNIX exist for many systems, from personal computers to supercomputers like the Cray Y-MP. Most versions of UNIX for personal computers are expensive and cumbersome. A one-machine version of UNIX System V for the 386 costs about $1500. LINUX is a free version of a UNIX-type system, developed primarily by Linus Torvalds at the University of Helsinki in Finland, with the help of many UNIX programmers and wizards across the Internet. Anyone with enough â€Å"know-how† and gumption can develop and change the system. The LINUX kernel uses no code from ATT or any other proprietary source, and much of the software availabl e for LINUX was developed by the GNU project of the Free Software Foundation in Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A. However, programmers from all over the world have contributed to the growing pool of LINUX software. LINUX was originally developed as a hobby project by Linus Torvalds. It was inspired by MINIX, a small UNIX system developed by Andy Tanenbaum. The first discussions about LINUX were on the Usenet newsgroup, â€Å"comp.os.minix†. These discussions were concerned mostly with the development of a small, academic UNIX system for MINIX users who wanted more. The very early development of LINUX mostly dealt with the task-switching features of the 80386 protected-mode interface, all written in assembly code. When was LINUX introducedThe very first version of LINUX (version 0.01) was made available by Linus Torvalds around late August of 1991. It was not pretty, it had no floppy driver, and it could not do much of anything. I am not sure if anybody ever compiled that versi on. No announcement was ever made for LINUX version 0.01. The version 0.01 sources were not even executable. They contained only the bare rudiments of the kernel source and assumed that you had access to a Minix machine to compile and experiment with them. On October 5, 1991, Linus announced the first â€Å"official† version of LINUX, which was version 0.02. At that point, Linus was able to run bash (the GNU Bourne Again Shell) and gcc (the GNU C compiler), but not much else. Again, this was intended as a hackers system. The primary focus was kernel development user support, documentation, and distribution had not yet been addressed. Today, the LINUX community still seems to treat these issues as secondary to â€Å"real programming† kernel development. After version 0.03, Linus bumped up the version number to 0.10, as more people started to work on the system. After several further revisions, Linus increased the version number to 0.95 in March 1992, to reflect his ex pectation that the system was ready for an â€Å"official† release soon. (Generally, software is not assigned the version number 1.0 until it is theoretically complete or bug-free.). Almost a year and a half later, in late December of 1993, the LINUX kernel was still at version 0.99. As of May 1999, â€Å"Red Hat† LINUX has â€Å"officially† released a version 6.0 of the LINUX kernel. I have not tried it yet, because it will be available starting on the 26th May 1999 and this paper is due on the 20th May 1999. Anyway, back to LINUX! Most of the major, free UNIX software packages have been ported to LINUX, and commercial software is available. More hardware is supported than in the original kernel versions. Many people have executed benchmarks on 80486 LINUX systems and found them comparable with mid-range workstations from Sun Microsystems and Digital Equipment Corporation. Who would have ever guessed that this â€Å"little† UNIX clone would have grown up to take on the entire world of personal computing? Types of LINUXThe question always arises at to which LINUX is the real one, or where to get the official version of LINUX. Unfortunately, this question really has no answer. The only part of LINUX, which is â€Å"officially†, LINUX is the core of LINUX, otherwise known as the kernel. All programs, appearances, configurations, startup code, and installation programs are provided as parts of what are called LINUX distributions. A distribution is simply a collection of programs and utilities, which turn the LINUX core (or kernel) into a fully functional UNIX-type system. Unfortunately, each distribution is slightly different and can greatly effect the users initial impression of LINUX. Different distributions will present the user with different initial configurations for LINUX. There are a number of LINUX distributions out there, both on the Web and on CD-ROM. Some are more businesslike; others are more playful or wild. Below is a brief summary regarding some of the major distributions. ? Red Hat LINUX UNIX for Windows users. This is the easiest transition into the UNIX world you can possibly hope for if youre a Windows user. Red Hat attempts to provide exceptional functionality and stability while keeping the system relatively easy to use and graphically oriented. Make no mistake, you will still have to learn about UNIX and the command line, but you will at least have something up and running by the time you are ready to hit the books. ? Slackware LINUX UNIX for UNIX hackers. Slackware, released several times per year, loves to provide cutting edge and beta applications and system code, and really gives that get your hands dirty feel. Dont be confused by its insider attitude, however. Slackware is very complete and can provide a serious platform for beginners and migrating Windows network users. Slackware simply requires a little more elbow grease and study to get going. Once going, Slackware feels mu ch more like UNIX than does Red Hat. ? Caldera OpenLINUX UNIX for business guys. If youre afraid that your boss wont like seeing LINUX on your desktop, and you have decided against Red Hat for one reason or another, Calderas OpenLINUX is the next logical choice. OpenLINUX is built by Caldera from the ground up for the business community; OpenLINUX often includes an office suite and telephone support. OpenLINUX also comes in several versions, from a small version for desktops to a big, ugly version for network servers. ? Debian GNU/LINUX UNIX for purists. Debian GNU/LINUX is a sort of spiritual operating system, and both its website and its distribution remind me of those of the more official UNIXes like the *BSD projects. If you are interested in LINUX, but cant loose the hang-up about LINUX not being the true and official UNIX, maybe youll feel a little more at ease using Debian GNU/LINUX. PerformanceMany benchmarks have been conducted by independent organizations, pitting LINUX against Windows NT and against the various flavors of UNIX. Apart from one study that is discussed later in this section, it appears that LINUX quite consistently beats NT not only on single-processor machines, but also on multi-processor machines on which NT is expected to scale better on account of its multi-threaded architecture. LINUX seems able to deliver good performance even with heavyweight processes instead of the lightweight threads that NT uses. Process forking in LINUX is particularly efficient, almost obviating the need for threads. LINUX also narrowly beats Solaris on its home ground, SPARC hardware, albeit only single-processor SPARC machines. UNIX systems, LINUX included, treat graphics as a user-level application that can be optionally run. Reasonably, sophisticated graphical interfaces exist for LINUX, but these are not tightly integrated with the operating system kernel. They can be switched off when not required. On servers, graphics capability is an unnecessary overhead most of the time. Typically, on UNIX servers, LINUX included, the graphical interface is invoked only when the system is being administrated, and turned off at all other times, delivering a significant performance boost to the system, because graphics is a very resource-intensive capability. The Windows design, by contrast, suffers from an overly tight integration of the graphics subsystem with the kernel (unsurprising in view of its desktop roots), and this design model will forever reduce performance in its role as a server operating system. Perhaps LINUX will lose its slim performance advantage against Solaris when it acquires more high-end features and grows in size. Time will tell. However, the constant fine-tuning of the kernel by a worldwide group of expert systems programmers could continue to give LINUX a performance lead even in future. It will be an interesting battle to watch. In April this year, a benchmark conducted by a company called Mindcraft reported that Windows NT with Microsofts IIS (Internet Information Server) performed 2.5 to 3.7 times faster than LINUX as a Windows fileserver (running Samba) and as a webserver (running Apache). This is somewhat surprising, because it is contrary to what several independent testers have found in the past, including emailprotected Reseller On-line. Subsequent information on the benchmark found that the NT machine used was highly tuned and optimized for the tested load, while the LINUX machine was not, a fact later admitted by Microsoft. It was also discovered that the benchmark was sponsored by Microsoft, and was not as independent as it was made out to be. (Microsoft still sports these figures, though). These facts therefore put the results under a cloud. For now, rather than debate the legitimacy of the Mindcraft benchmark, it is best that you design and conduct one yourself, tailoring it to your situation. After all, not everyone runs servers that are as high-end as that used in the benchmark . Microsoft admitted after internal testing that on the same hardware, Netscape Navigator on LINUX was 30-40% faster than Internet Explorer on Windows NT. Benchmarking, of course, ranks with lies, damned lies and statistics, but from a variety of sources, the impression one gets is that LINUX is one of the leanest and fastest operating systems available. With the new kernel (version 2.2), it has reportedly even drawn level with the ultrafast FreeBSD. Nevertheless, the LINUX vendors need to submit formal SPEC or TPC benchmark figures; otherwise, this sort of controversy could keep arising. Incidentally, the TPC benchmarks have a price/performance parameter, and LINUX should do very well on that!Usability Users accustomed to the friendly graphical interfaces of Windows and the Mac would reasonably balk at having to type commands in an arcane syntax. Nevertheless, things are changing fast. There are two graphical desktop environments for LINUX. KDE (K Desktop Environment) is the slight ly more mature one, and the main criticism heard about it these days is that its too clean and corporate. Gnome is a more fun interface that allows users to customize it ad infinitum. Neither interface is yet as polished and complete as the Windows or Mac desktops. However, they have developed to their current state in an amazingly short time (See screenshots located at the back of this document). Critics of LINUX must remember that the earliest versions of Windows were eminently forgettable, and it was only with version 3.1, appearing sometime in 1993, that Windows became usable. It took more than another 2 years for Windows to achieve its current levels of usability in the form of Windows 98. Given the current status of both LINUX desktop projects and their tremendous momentum, it seems reasonable to expect that this argument about LINUX not having a friendly graphical interface will wither away by the end of 1999. Besides, to turn the user-friendliness argument around, a command- line is an excellent alternative to a GUI in many situations. Even with an extremely friendly GUI, a user may find certain operations difficult to express with a graphical metaphor, for instance, pimping – I meant â€Å"piping† the output of one program to the input of another one. The powerful commands that can be chained together make the LINUX command line a very productive environment. Scripting is another very powerful UNIX mainstay, an area where predominantly GUI-based systems like Windows and the Mac are notoriously weak. The DOS batch files of Windows are pitifully inadequate compared to the basic UNIX shell script, while Applescript comes somewhat closer. Neither can match the breadth and power of LINUX scripting languages like Perl, Python, Tcl and Guile. That may explain why these languages are now being ported to Windows. It remains to be seen whether Windows 2000, with its promised Active Scripting using Visual Basic, brings Windows up to this level. Iron ically, with a graphical environment very similar to Windows or the Mac, LINUXs command-line and scripting interface will perhaps soon emerge as a major selling point for advanced users. Windows and Macintosh treat all users alike, irrespective of skill level, and do not allow users to acquire more control over their machines with increasing experience. UNIX and LINUX systems, on the other hand, scale extremely well with experience, rewarding advanced users with dramatically greater productivity. Therefore, the argument that LINUX has no friendly interface is now clearly untrue. The challenge for LINUX now is to develop graphical metaphors for its powerful command-line constructs as well. Piping and redirection through drag-and-drop, visual scripting, graphical representation of the powerful UNIX file abstraction, and other innovations can push the LINUX interface beyond the reach of Windows and Macintosh, because they lack the underlying architecture to support such visual represen tations. William Blake's Songs of Innocence and Experience EssayMice and other pointing devices -Typically, a mouse is used only in graphical environments like X. However, several LINUX applications that are not associated with a graphical environment also use mice. LINUX supports standard serial mice like Logitech, MM series, Mouseman, Microsoft (2-button), and Mouse Systems (3-button). LINUX also supports Microsoft, Logitech, and ATIXL bus mice, and the PS/2 mouse interface. Pointing devices that emulate mice, like trackballs and touchpads, should work also. CD-ROM drives LINUX supports many common CD-ROM drives attach to standard IDE controllers. Another common interface for CD-ROM is SCSI. SCSI support includes multiple logical units per devices. Additionally, a few proprietary interfaces, like the NEC CDR-74, Sony CDU-541 and CDU-31a, Texel DM-3024, and Mitsumi are supported. LINUX supports the standard ISO 9660 file system for CD-ROMs, and the High Sierra file system extensions. Tape drives Any SCSI tape drive, including quarter inch, DAT, and 8MM are supported, if the SCSI controller is supported. Devices that connect to the floppy controller like floppy tape drives are supported as well, as are some other interfaces, like QIC-02. Printers LINUX supports the complete range of parallel printers. If MS-DOS or some other operating system can access your printer from the parallel port, LINUX should be able to access it, too. LINUX printer software includes the UNIX standard lp and lpr software. This software allows you to print remotely via a network. LINUX also includes software that allows most printers to handle PostScript files. Modems As with printer support, LINUX supports the full range of serial modems, both internal and external. A great deal of telecommunications software is available for LINUX, including Kermit, pcomm, minicom, and seyon. If your modem is accessible from another operating system on the same machine, you should be able to access it fr om LINUX with no difficulty. Ethernet cards Many popular Ethernet cards and LAN adaptors are supported by LINUX. LINUX also supports some FDDI, frame relay, and token ring cards, and all Arcnet cards. A list of supported network cards is generally included in the kernel source of the distribution. Installation Each Linux distrribution has its own setup utility, every one vastly different from all the others. This makes it very difficult if not impossible to write a general step by step Linux installation manual. The closest thing in existence is the â€Å"Linux Installation and Getting Started Guide†, which should be included in HTML format with every Linux distribution, and is available online thanks to the â€Å"Linux Documentation Project†. This book contains a fairly good comparison of the major distributions and an outline of the installation process for each one. It also covers the basic technical concepts you need to understand during installation, and covers s ome issues of usability following the install. X WindowsThe X Window System, or simply X, is a standard graphical user interface (GUI) for UNIX machines and is a powerful environment, which supports many applications. Using the X Window System, you can have multiple terminal windows on the screen at once, each having a different login session. A pointing device like a mouse is often used with X, although it is not required. Many X-specific applications have been written, including games, graphics and programming utilities, and documentation tools. LINUX and X make your system a bona fide workstation. With TCP/IP networking, your LINUX machine can display X applications running on other machines. The X Window System was originally developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and is freely distributable. Many commercial vendors have distributed proprietary enhancements to the original X Window System as well. The version of X for LINUX is XFree86, a port of X11R6, which is f reely distributable. XFree86 supports a wide range of video hardware, including VGA, Super VGA, and accelerated video adapters. XFree86 is a complete distribution of the X Windows System software, and contains the X server itself, many applications and utilities, programming libraries, and documents. Standard X applications include xterm, a terminal emulator used for most text-based applications within a window, xdm, which handles logins, xclock, a simple clock display, xman, a X-based manual page reader, and xmore. There are manu other application written which includes spreadsheets, word processors, graphics programs, and web browsers like the Netscape Navigator. Theoretically, any application written for X should compile cleanly under LINUX. The interface of the X Window System is controlled largely by the window manager. This user-friendly program is in charge of the placement of windows, the user interface for resizing and moving them, changing windows to icons, and the appeara nce of window frames, among other tasks. XFree86 includes twm, the classic MIT window manager, and advanced window managers like the Open Look Virtual Window Manager (olvwm) are available. Popular among LINUX users is fvwma small window manager that requires less than half the memory of twm. It provides a 3-dimensional appearance for windows and a virtual desktop. The user moves the mouse to the edge of the screen, and the desktop shifts as though the display was much larger than it really is. fvwm is greatly customizable and allows access to functions from the keyboard as well as mouse. Many LINUX distributions use fvwm as the standard window manager. A version of fvwm called fvwm95-2 offers Microsoft Windows 95-like look and feel. The XFree86 distribution includes programming libraries for programmers who wish to develop X applications. Widget sets like Athena, Open Look, and Xaw3D are supported. All of the standard fonts, bitmaps, manual pages, and documentation are included. PEX (a programming interface for 3-dimensional graphics) is also supported. Many X application programmers use the proprietary Motif widget set for development. Several vendors sell single and multiple user licenses for binary versions of Motif. Because Motif itself is relatively expensive, not many LINUX users own it. However, binaries statically linked with Motif routines can be freely distributed. NetworkingLINUX supports two primary UNIX networking protocols: TCP/IP and UUCP. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is the networking paradigm which allows systems all over the world to communicate on a single network, the Internet. With LINUX, TCP/IP, and a connection to the Internet, you can communicate with users and machines via electronic mail, Usenet news, and FTP file transfer. Most TCP/IP networks use Ethernet as the physical network transport. LINUX supports many popular Ethernet cards and interfaces for personal computers, including pocket and PCMCIA Etherne t adapters. However, because not everyone has an Ethernet connection at home, LINUX also supports SLIP (Serial Line Internet Protocol) and PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol), which provide Internet access via modem. Many businesses and universities provide SLIP and PPP servers. In fact, if your LINUX system has an Ethernet connection to the Internet and a modem, your system can become a SLIP or PPP server for other hosts. NFS (Network File System) lets your system seamlessly share file systems with other machines on the network. FTP (File Transfer Protocol) lets you transfer files with other machines. sendmail sends and receives electronic mail via the SMTP protocol; C-News and INN are NNTP based new systems; and telnet, rlogin, and rsh let you log in and execute commands on other machines on the network. finger lets you get information about other Internet users. LINUX also supports Microsoft Windows connectivity via Samba and Macintosh connectivity with AppleTalk and LocalTalk. Support for Novells IPX protocol is also included. The full range of mail and newsreaders is available for LINUX, including elm, pine, rn, nn, and tin. Whatever your preference, you can configure a LINUX system to send and receive electronic mail and news from all over the world. The system provides a standard UNIX socket-programming interface. Virtually any program that uses TCP/IP can be ported to LINUX. The LINUX X server also supports TCP/IP, and applications running on other systems may use the display of your local system. UUCP (UNIX-to-UNIX Copy) is an older mechanism to transfer files, electronic mail, and electronic news between UNIX machines. Historically, UUCP machines are connected over telephone lines via modem, but UUCP is able to transfer data over a TCP/IP network as well. If you do not have access to a TCP/IP network or a SLIP or PPP server, you can configure your system to send and receive files and electronic mail using UUCP. System Administration LINUX differentiates be tween different users. What they can do to each other and the system is regulated. File permissions are arranged so that normal users cannot delete or modify files in directories like /bin and /usr/bin. Most users protect their own files with the appropriate permissions so that other users cannot access or modify them. Each user is given an account that includes a user name and home directory. In addition, there are special, system defined accounts which have special privileges. The most important of these is the root account, which is used by the system administrator. By convention, the system administrator is the user, root. There are no restrictions on root. He or she can read, modify, or delete any file on the system, change permissions and owner-ships on any file, and run special programs like those which partition a hard drive or create file systems. The basic idea is that a person who cares for the system logs in as root to perform tasks that cannot be executed as a normal us er. Because root can do anything, it is easy to make mistakes that have catastrophic consequences. If a normal user tries inadvertently to delete all of the files in /etc, the system will not permit him or her to do so. However, if root tries to do the same thing, the system does not complain at all. It is very easy to trash a LINUX system when using root. Picture the root account as a special, magic hat that gives you lots of power, with which you can, by waving your hands, destroy entire cities. It is a good idea to be a bit careful about what you do with your hands. Because it is easy to wave your hands in a destructive manner, it is not a good idea to wear the magic hat when it is not needed, despite the wonderful feeling. The best way to prevent accidents is to sit on your hands before you press â€Å"Enter† for any command that is non-reversible. Conclusion After LINUX 1.0 was released, work was done on several enhancements. LINUX 1.2 included disk access speedups, TTY improvements, virtual memory enhancements, multiple platform support, quotas, and more. LINUX 2.0 has even more enhancements, including many performance improvements, several new networking protocols, one of the fastest TCP/IP implementations in the world, and far, far more. Even higher performance, more networking protocols, and more device drivers are available in LINUX 2.2. In the final analysis, the greatest irony behind the LINUX phenomenon may be its reliance on the same principal upon which Microsoft has relied: the bottom line. While Microsofts bottom line has led to incomplete and disfunctional software, cutting corners, buyouts and legal wrangling, the LINUX bottom line, in financial terms, remains ultimately advantageous. In LINUX, the bottom line is zero. Zero dollars, zero lawsuits, zero buyouts, and zero political concerns. Because LINUX, by its v ery nature, has avoided nearly every concern with which Microsoft has struggled recently, LINUX appears to have a clear advantage, especially when the technical superiority of the LINUX operating system is considered as well. LINUX may very well be the operating system of choice in the future at its features and performance clearly outguns that of Windows NT. On the other hand, Windows NT do offer a more â€Å"user-friendly† environment than LINUX. 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